Planetary health: an imperative for pediatric radiology.

The global temperature has been increasing resulting in climate change. This negatively impacts planetary health that disproportionately affects the most vulnerable among us, especially children. Extreme weather events, such as hurricanes, tornadoes, wildfires, flooding, and heatwaves, are becoming more frequent and severe, posing a significant threat to our patients' health, safety, and security. Concurrently, shifts in environmental exposures, including air pollution, allergens, pathogenic vectors, and microplastics, further exacerbate the risks faced by children. In this paper, we provide an overview of pediatric illnesses that are becoming more prevalent and severe because of extreme weather events, global temperature increases, and shifts in environmental exposures. As members of pediatric health care teams, it is crucial for pediatric radiologists to be knowledgeable about the impacts of climate change on our patients, and continue to advocate for safe, healthier environments for our patients.

Time-Driven Activity-Based Cost Comparison of Osteoid Osteoma Ablation Techniques.

OBJECTIVE: Compare the cost of performing an osteoid osteoma ablation using cone beam CT (CBCT) with overlay fluoroscopic guidance to ablation using conventional CT (CCT) guidance and microwave ablation (MWA) to radiofrequency ablation (RFA). METHODS: An 11-year retrospective study was performed of all patients undergoing osteoid osteoma ablation. Ablation equipment included a Cool tip RFA probe (Covidien, Minneapolis, Minnesota) or a Neuwave PR MWA probe (Ethicon, Rariton, New Jersey). The room times as well as immediate recovery time were recorded for each case. Cost analysis was then performed using time-driven activity-based costing for rate-dependent variables including salaries, equipment depreciation, room time, and certain supplies. Time-independent costs included the disposable interventional radiology supplies and ablation systems. Costs were reported for each service providing care and using conventional cost accounting methods with variable and fixed expenditures. RESULTS: A total of 91 patients underwent 96 ablation procedures in either CBCT (n = 66) or CCT (n = 30) using either MWA (n = 51) or RFA (n = 45). The anesthesia induction (22.7 ± 8.7 min versus 15.9 ± 7.2 min, P < .001), procedure (64.7 ± 27.5 min versus 47.3 ± 15.3 min; P = .001), and room times (137.7 ± 33.7 min versus 103.9 ± 22.6. min; P < .001) were significantly longer for CBCT procedures. The procedure time did not differ significantly between MWA and RFA (62.1 ± 27.4 min versus 56.1 ± 23.3 min; P = .27). Multiple regression analysis demonstrated lower age (P = .046), CBCT use (P = .001), RFA use (P = .02), and nonsupine patient position (P = .01) significantly increased the total procedural cost. After controlling for these variables, the total cost of CBCT ($5,981.32 ± $523.93 versus $5,378.93 ± $453.12; P = .001) remained higher than CCT and the total cost of RFA ($5,981.32 ± $523.93 versus $5,674.43 ± $549.14; P = .05) approached a higher cost than MWA. CONCLUSION: The use of CBCT with overlay fluoroscopic guidance for osteoid osteoma ablation resulted in longer in-room times and greater cost when compared with CCT. These cost considerations should be weighed against potential radiation dose advantage of CBCT when choosing an image guidance modality. Younger age, RFA use, and nonsupine patient position additionally contributed to higher costs.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Congenital or Acquired Heart Disease.

Pediatric heart disease is a large and diverse field with an overall prevalence estimated at 6 to 13 per 1,000 live births. This document discusses appropriateness of advanced imaging for a broad range of variants. Diseases covered include tetralogy of Fallot, transposition of great arteries, congenital or acquired pediatric coronary artery abnormality, single ventricle, aortopathy, anomalous pulmonary venous return, aortopathy and aortic coarctation, with indications for advanced imaging spanning the entire natural history of the disease in children and adults, including initial diagnosis, treatment planning, treatment monitoring, and early detection of complications. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision process support the systematic analysis of the medical literature from peer reviewed journals. Established methodology principles such as Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE are adapted to evaluate the evidence. The RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method User Manual provides the methodology to determine the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where peer reviewed literature is lacking or equivocal, experts may be the primary evidentiary source available to formulate a recommendation.

Frequency of technical success of ultrasound-guided arthrogram injections in children.

BACKGROUND: MR arthrography is an essential diagnostic tool to assess and guide management of labral, ligamentous, fibrocartilaginous, and capsular abnormalities in children. While fluoroscopy is traditionally used for intra-articular contrast administration, ultrasound offers advantages of portability and lack of ionizing radiation exposure for both the patient and proceduralist. OBJECTIVE: The purpose of this retrospective study is to quantify technical success and frequency of complications of ultrasound-guided arthrogram injections at our institution. MATERIALS AND METHODS: This retrospective analysis investigates the results of 217 ultrasound-guided arthrograms of the shoulder, elbow, and hip in patients aged 5-18 years. Successful injection of contrast into the target joint, clinical indication for MR arthrography, and complications were reviewed. RESULTS: Accurate ultrasound-guided intra-articular administration of contrast into the target joint was successful for 100% of shoulder cases (90/90), 97% of elbow cases (77/79), and 98% of hip cases (47/48). Leak of contrast outside the target joint occurred in 1.4% (3/217) of cases. No major side effects including excessive bleeding, paresthesia, allergic reactions, or infection occurred during or after the procedure. Additionally, no major vessel, nerve, or tendon complications were observed on MR images. CONCLUSION: Ultrasound guidance is a reliable, effective, and safe approach to arthrography in children.

Imaging of Vesicoureteral Reflux: AJR Expert Panel Narrative Review.

Vesicoureteral reflux (VUR) is a common congenital anomaly of the urinary tract that can present with collecting system dilation or as a febrile infection. VUR can lead to permanent renal sequela requiring surgery but can also spontaneously resolve without complication. Therefore, it is important to recognize those patient populations who warrant imaging for screening, confirmation, or ongoing surveillance for VUR, while avoiding overdiagnosis. In the appropriate patient populations, an accurate diagnosis of VUR allows early treatment and prevention of pyelonephritis and scarring. Various imaging modalities are available to diagnose and grade VUR, including voiding cystourethrogram (VCUG), radionucleotide cystography (RNC), and contrast-enhanced voiding urosonography (ceVUS). The objective of this article is to summarize the current understanding of VUR diagnosis and management and to discuss these imaging modalities' strengths and pitfalls. Considerations include indications for VUR imaging, patient preparation, conduct of the examination, issues related to radiologic reporting, and cost-effectiveness. An emphasis is placed on ceVUS, which is the most recently introduced of the three imaging modalities and is receiving growing support among pediatric radiologists.

Golimumab in Children with Chronic Recurrent Multifocal Osteomyelitis: A Case Series and Review of the Literature.

BACKGROUND: Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO) is a rare autoinflammatory bone disease requiring immunosuppressive treatment in half of patients. Monoclonal tumor necrosis factor inhibitors (TNFi) are often used as effective second-line off-label therapies. However, paradoxical psoriasis can occur in a subset of patients exposed to monoclonal TNFi and can prompt conversion to alternate therapy if severe. OBJECTIVE: The aim of this study was to determine the efficacy and safety of golimumab, a fully humanized TNFi, in children with CRMO, including those who develop paradoxical psoriasis after exposure to other monoclonal TNFi. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was conducted of patients with CRMO who received golimumab in a single center between 01 June, 2018 and 31 December, 2020. Patients who were diagnosed before 21 years of age and followed up for CRMO at least once after receiving ≥ 3 months of golimumab were included. Extracted data included patient demographics, whole-body MRI lesion counts, clinically relevant data, laboratory results, patient-reported outcomes, and psoriasis burden. Linear mixed models with log-transformed outcomes were used to assess changes in the outcomes over time. The random effect is included in the model to account for the within-subject correlation of repeated measures. p-values and 95% confidence intervals were reported. RESULTS: Eighteen patients were included. Patients were observed for a median of 9.95 months [interquartile range 3.84-15.64]. The median age at the initiation of golimumab was 10.95 years [9.86-13.77] and the median duration of disease between the disease onset and the initiation of golimumab was 2.60 years [1.66-3.62]. Ten patients received golimumab via intravenous route and eight patients received golimumab via subcutaneous route. The median dose was 1.64 mg/kg/month [1.46, 2]. Fourteen patients were previously treated with disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs and 17 with other TNFi. Patients treated with golimumab showed significant improvement in median physician global assessment for CRMO from 2.00 [1.00-3.00] to 0.00 [0.00-0.25] by the fourth visit (p < 0.001), with median erythrocyte sedimentation rate (ESR) decreasing significantly from 12.00 [6.75-23.75] to 5.00 [3.00-10.00] by the fourth visit (p < 0.05). The median number of lesions on MRI decreased significantly from 3.50 [2.00-5.50] to 0.50 [0.00-4.25] lesions per patient (p < 0.01). Nine out of 12 patients who had previous paradoxical psoriasis associated with adalimumab or infliximab had persistent active psoriasis at study baseline. For patients with psoriasis at study baseline, the prevalence of psoriasis had decreased from 100% to approximately 50-57% at the following visits. Of the 18 patients initiated on golimumab in this study, there was only one new case of mild psoriasis in a patient with previously resolved infliximab-associated paradoxical psoriasis. No serious infections or adverse events were noted during the study. Two patients in the study showed clinical improvement with concomitant golimumab and ustekinumab with no reported adverse side effects or increased effects in these patients over a 16-month interval, showing that this combination can be safe and effective for children with CRMO. CONCLUSION: In our experience, golimumab has been shown to be a safe and effective therapy for CRMO and demonstrated improvement in paradoxical psoriasis in many patients. Longer follow-up periods would be helpful to develop longer term outcomes data for patients with CRMO and overall paradoxical psoriasis risk.

Turnaround time and efficiency of pediatric outpatient brain magnetic resonance imaging: a multi-institutional cross-sectional study.

BACKGROUND: Aside from single-center reports, few data exist across pediatric institutions that examine overall MRI turnaround time (TAT) and the determinants of variability. OBJECTIVE: To determine average duration and determinants of a brain MRI examination at academic pediatric institutions and compare the duration to those used in practice expense relative value units (RVUs). MATERIALS AND METHODS: This multi-institutional cross-sectional investigation comprised four academic pediatric hospitals. We included children ages 0 to < 18 years who underwent an outpatient MRI of the brain without contrast agent in 2019. Our outcome of interest was the overall MRI TAT derived by time stamps. We estimated determinants of overall TAT using an adjusted log-transformed multivariable linear regression model with robust standard errors. RESULTS: The average overall TAT significantly varied among the four hospitals. A sedated brain MRI ranged from 158 min to 224 min, a non-sedated MRI from 70 min to 112 min, and a limited MRI from 44 min to 70 min. The most significant predictor of a longer overall TAT was having a sedated MRI (coefficient = 0.71, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.66-0.75; P < 0.001). The median MRI scan time for a non-sedated exam was 38 min and for a sedated exam, 37 min, approximately double the duration used by the Relative Value Scale (RVS) Update Committee (RUC). CONCLUSION: We found considerable differences in the overall TAT across four pediatric academic institutions. Overall, the significant predictors of turnaround times were hospital site and MRI pathway (non-sedated versus sedated versus limited MRI).

Imaging of pediatric bone tumors: A COG Diagnostic Imaging Committee/SPR Oncology Committee White Paper.

Malignant primary bone tumors are uncommon in the pediatric population, accounting for 3%-5% of all pediatric malignancies. Osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma comprise 90% of malignant primary bone tumors in children and adolescents. This paper provides consensus-based recommendations for imaging in children with osteosarcoma and Ewing sarcoma at diagnosis, during therapy, and after therapy.

Is Thyroid Monitoring Warranted in Infants and Young Children After Intravascular Administration of Iodine-Based Contrast Media?

On March 30, 2022, the U.S. FDA issued a drug safety communication recommending that infants and young children through 3 years of age undergo monitoring of thyroid function within 3 weeks of intravascular administration of iodine-based contrast media. This article considers the literature that was referenced for this decision and provides an outlook on thyroid monitoring after diagnostic imaging from pediatric radiology and pediatric endocrinology perspectives.

Safety considerations related to intravenous contrast agents in pediatric imaging.

Intravenous contrast media are used in MRI, CT and US studies for anatomical evaluation and lesion characterization. Safety is always of paramount importance when administering any contrast media to children, and it is important for radiologists and ordering providers to be knowledgeable of the safety profiles and potential adverse events that can occur. This manuscript reviews the frequency and types of adverse events associated with intravenous contrast agents reported in the pediatric literature. Overall, intravenous contrast agents are very safe to use in children. However, familiarity with how to treat and prevent these uncommon events is crucial in preventing poor outcomes. In addition, an understanding of gadolinium deposition in tissues can help facilitate conversations with concerned physicians and parents. This review provides a concise yet comprehensive reference for radiologists and ordering providers on intravenous contrast safety considerations in the pediatric patient.

Imaging of pediatric extremity soft tissue tumors: A COG Diagnostic Imaging Committee/SPR Oncology Committee White Paper.

Pediatric soft tissue tumors of the extremity include rhabdomyosarcoma and nonrhabdomyosarcoma neoplasms. This manuscript provides consensus-based imaging recommendations for imaging evaluation at diagnosis, during treatment, and following completion of therapy for patients with a soft tissue tumor of the extremity.

Imaging of pediatric pulmonary tumors: A COG Diagnostic Imaging Committee/SPR Oncology Committee White Paper.

Pediatric pulmonary malignancy can be primary or metastatic, with the latter being by far the more common. With a few exceptions, there are no well-established evidence-based guidelines for imaging pediatric pulmonary malignancies, although computed tomography (CT) is used in almost all cases. The aim of this article is to provide general imaging guidelines for pediatric pulmonary malignancies, including minimum standards for cross-sectional imaging techniques and specific imaging recommendations for select entities.

Whole-body MRI at initial presentation of pediatric chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis and correlation with clinical assessment.

BACKGROUND: Chronic recurrent multifocal osteomyelitis (CRMO) is a diagnosis of exclusion, relying heavily on whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (WB-MRI) for diagnosing and evaluating response to therapy. Information with respect to disease distribution and imaging correlation with clinical disease severity at initial presentation is lacking. OBJECTIVE: To retrospectively characterize distribution of disease on WB-MRI and to correlate imaging findings with disease severity at initial rheumatology presentation. MATERIALS AND METHODS: Using a modified version of a recently devised imaging-based scoring system, we evaluated disease distribution and correlation between findings on WB-MRI and clinical disease severity in 54 patients presenting for initial evaluation of CRMO. Symptomatic lesion sites were extracted from chart review and physician global assessment was determined by the consensus of two rheumatologists. RESULTS: Sites of CRMO involvement evident on imaging at initial presentation had a strong predilection for the pelvis and lower extremities. There was significant correlation between the number of lesions detected on WB-MRI and total clinical severity score at initial rheumatology presentation (P<0.01). However, no other imaging parameter correlated with disease severity. CONCLUSION: While the overall number of lesions identified on MRI correlates with clinical severity scores at initial imaging, other MR parameters of CRMO lesions may not be reliable indicators of disease severity at initial presentation. Further research is needed to assess whether these parameters are implicated in longitudinal disease severity or overall response to therapy.

Imaging to intervention: Thoracic outlet syndrome.

Thoracic outlet syndrome (TOS) is a clinical disorder resulting from compression of the neurovascular bundle of the lower neck and upper chest. TOS can be categorized into neurogenic, venous, and arterial subtypes which result from anatomical compression of the brachial plexus, subclavian vein, and subclavian artery, respectively. This can lead to neurogenic pain as well as vascular injury with thrombosis and thromboembolism. Interventional and diagnostic radiologists play a critical role in the imaging diagnosis and treatment of vascular TOS. Prompt imaging and endovascular management with surgical collaboration has been shown to provide the most successful and long-lasting clinical outcomes, from vessel patency to symptom relief. In this article, we review the anatomy and clinical presentations of TOS as well as the initial imaging modalities used for diagnosis. Furthermore, we detail the role of the diagnostic and interventional radiologist in the management of TOS, including pre-procedure and endovascular interventions, along with medical and surgical treatments. PRECIS: Diagnostic and Interventional Radiologists play a key role in diagnosis and management of vascular thoracic outlet syndromes and are critical for timely and successful outcomes.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Osteomyelitis or Septic Arthritis-Child (Excluding Axial Skeleton).

Imaging plays an integral role in the evaluation of suspected musculoskeletal infections in children, not only in the accurate identification of infection such as osteomyelitis or septic arthritis, but also in guiding management. Various diagnostic modalities serve different purposes in the assessment of suspected pediatric musculoskeletal infections. The purpose of this document is to provide imaging guidance in the most frequently encountered clinical scenarios in which osteomyelitis and/or septic arthritis are suspected, outside of the axial skeleton. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion.

ACR Appropriateness Criteria® Crohn Disease-Child.

Crohn disease is an inflammatory condition of the gastrointestinal tract with episodes of exacerbation and remission occurring in children, adolescents, and adults. Crohn disease diagnosis and treatment depend upon a combination of clinical, laboratory, endoscopic, histological, and imaging findings. Appropriate use of imaging provides critical information in the settings of diagnosis, assessment of acute symptoms, disease surveillance, and therapy monitoring. Four variants are discussed. The first variant discusses the initial imaging for suspected Crohn disease before established diagnosis. The second variant pertains to appropriateness of imaging modalities during suspected acute exacerbation. The third variant is a substantial discussion of recommendations related to disease surveillance and monitoring of Crohn disease. Finally, panel recommendations and discussion of perianal fistulizing disease imaging completes the document. The American College of Radiology Appropriateness Criteria are evidence-based guidelines for specific clinical conditions that are reviewed annually by a multidisciplinary expert panel. The guideline development and revision include an extensive analysis of current medical literature from peer reviewed journals and the application of well-established methodologies (RAND/UCLA Appropriateness Method and Grading of Recommendations Assessment, Development, and Evaluation or GRADE) to rate the appropriateness of imaging and treatment procedures for specific clinical scenarios. In those instances where evidence is lacking or equivocal, expert opinion may supplement the available evidence to recommend imaging or treatment.

Increasing Cases of Chronic Nonbacterial Osteomyelitis in Children: A Series of 215 Cases From a Single Tertiary Referral Center.

OBJECTIVE: Chronic nonbacterial osteomyelitis (CNO) is a rare autoinflammatory bone disease that is gaining recognition from clinicians and researchers. We aim to publish data from our cohort of patients with CNO living in the northwestern United States to increase the awareness of specific demographics, characteristics, and presentation of this rare disease. METHODS: A retrospective chart review was performed of our electronic medical records. Patients with complete chart records who met criteria for a diagnosis of CNO from 2005 to 2019 were included. Extracted data including patient demographics, bone biopsy results, and lesion locations on advanced imaging were analyzed. King County census data were used to calculate the annual new case rate within our center. RESULTS: A total of 215 CNO cases were diagnosed at our large tertiary pediatric hospital. The majority of cases were of White race residing in Washington's most populous county, King County. Most cases were diagnosed in 2016 to 2019, showing a significant increase in the annual case rate from 8 to 23 per million children in King County, though there did not appear to be a seasonal predilection. Biopsy rate decreased from 75% to 52%. One hundred fifty-two (71%) children had family history of autoimmunity. With increasing use of whole-body magnetic resonance imaging (WB-MRI), results showed 68% had multiple lesions. CONCLUSION: CNO has been diagnosed at an increased rate in recent years. WB-MRI may assist in identifying other lesions that may be asymptomatic on presentation. Bone biopsy is still required in some children at the time of diagnosis.

Palpable pediatric chest wall masses.

Pediatric chest wall lesions are varied in etiology ranging from normal and benign to aggressive and malignant. When palpable, these lesions can alarm parents and clinicians alike. However, most palpable pediatric chest lesions are benign. Familiarity with the various entities, their incidences, and how to evaluate them with imaging is important for clinicians and radiologists. Here we review the most relevant palpable pediatric chest entities, their expected appearance and the specific clinical issues to aid in diagnosis and appropriate treatment.

Pearls and Pitfalls of Thoracic Manifestations of Abuse in Children.

Child abuse is a broad term that includes, but is not limited to, physical or emotional harm, neglect, sexual abuse, and exploitation. In 2018 in the United States, there were nearly 700,000 victims of such maltreatment, of which 1700 children died. The majority of deaths occur in infants and toddlers under 3 years of age. While clinical signs and symptoms may raise suspicion for inflicted injury, such as bruising in young infants, imaging often plays a central role in identifying and characterizing nonaccidental trauma. The purpose of this article is to discuss the array of inflicted traumatic injuries to the thorax in children. Rib fractures are among the most common and telling features of physical abuse, especially in infants. The locations of such fractures and differences in appearance while healing will be presented, along with potential mimics and pitfalls. Less typical fractures seen in abuse will also be reviewed, including those of the sternum, clavicle, spine, and scapula. Finally, uncommon injuries to the lungs, heart and esophagus will also be considered.